The Discovery Essay Example for Free

The Discovery Essay ‘The Discovery’, by J. C Squire describes a historical event: Christopher Columbus’s ‘discovery’ of the New World on his 1942 expedition across the Atlantic Ocean which initiated the process of Spanish colonisation. The poem has gone by several names including ‘The Caravels, ‘Sonnet’ and ‘There was an Indian’. John Collings Squire (J. C Squire) (1884-1958) was a British poet, writer, historian, influential literary critic and editor of the post WW1 period. He was also a leading poet of the Georgian period. The poem is a simple sonnet; made up of two quatrains and a sestet. The rhyme scheme is abab, cdcd, efegfg. The rhyme creates a steady, forward-moving motion similar to the movement of the waves and the inevitability of the oncoming Spanish vessels reaching the shore. The poet uses simple language and imagery which mirror the uncomplicated life of the Indian from whose perspective this historical event is retold. The discovery of the New World is often related from the perspective of the Spanish colonisers of the 15th and 16th centuries. Squire also reminds us that this was a two-fold discovery as the indigenous Americans discovered a new world of their own. The phrase, ‘an Indian’, in the first stanza lends a sense of anonymity to the identity of the Indian who witnesses the arrival of Columbus. The indefinite article (an) allows us to believe that this Indian represents all Native Americans. The opening line is reminiscent of a folktale. This style suggests a mythologizing of this historical event, infusing it with an element of magic. One might also believe it to be an example of the oral tradition of legends told among Native Americans. Like other Indians, the Indian in the poem ‘had known no change’. His life consisted of gathering shells; a simple way of life that belonged to an old civilisation for which this discovery was sure to be a shock. The alliteration of ‘s/sh’ in the line ‘†¦ along a sunlit beach. Gathering shells’ depicts the calm, serene and uninterrupted life of the natives. He ‘strayed content’ almost aimlessly, along a ‘sunlit beach’, in no rush to go about his simple life. The presence of dawn symbolises the dawn of a new era in the life of the Indian. We are reminded that historical records show that the event occurred at dawn. Light also symbolises knowledge and discovery for both the Spanish and the Indians. The caesura in the third line ‘He heard a sudden, strange commingled noise’ effectively draws our attention to the abrupt change in this tranquil picture. The caesura evokes a sense of confusion in the atmosphere which was once silent but is now filled with an unfamiliar noise. This is created through the use of alliteration and hard consonants. The Indian’s reaction in the last line of the first stanza ‘looked up: and gasped for speech’ indicates how amazed and speechless he was. The caesura in line four ‘Commingled noise: looked up; and gasped for speech’, also denotes the abrupt actions and reactions of the Indian man. The second stanza is linked to the first stanza by means of a further explanation for the sudden change in the first quatrain. The poet evokes the Indian’s tone of amazement and wonder at the appearance of the ‘huge canoes’ that appear ‘by magic’. The idea of magic evokes a contrast between the two civilisations; the superstitious, tribal beliefs of the natives versus the more advanced scientific beliefs of the Spanish. The poet also evokes the serene, tranquil and undefiled setting and one of confusion which is emphasised by the impressive image of these unnatural and unfamiliar sea vessels on the water. The Indian is unfamiliar with these large ships. In fact, he can only describe them in terms of what he already knows, for eg. ‘huge canoes’ and ‘not one oar’. The Indian’s tone of awe is audible even though the poet does not give him a voice. Perhaps, this is to further emphasise the domination and oppression of the Spanish colonisation of the Native Americans stamping out their voice, culture and traditions. The images used in the stanza are simple yet vivid as can be seen through the image of the ‘Bellying cloths’ and ‘Fluttering coloured signs. The second quatrain is stylistically interesting because the poet is conscious of the different perspectives: that of the Indian man who tries to describe these unfamiliar objects by adapting them to those he is familiar with, and that of the reader who has a knowledge of history and immediately recognises the Indian’s attempt to describe the billowing sails, fluttering flags and ‘clambering crews’. The alliteration of the letter ‘k’ sound in the last line of the second stanza ‘And fluttering coloured signs and clambering crews’, reminds us of the confusion and cacophony created by the sailors as they prepare to land. The third stanza, the ‘sestet’, begins with the conjunction ‘And’, linking it to the previous stanzas. There is now a Volta as the focus shifts to the Indian’s reaction to the caravels. There is an even greater use of caesura which creates an abrupt and staccato rhythm which might reflect the fear that has overcome the Indian, maybe his accelerated heartbeat too. The Volta between the second and third stanzas is also evident in the rhyme scheme which suggests the inevitable, impending conclusion to this sighting as the caravels ‘Slant to the shore, and all their seamen land’. The final stanza draws a clear contrast between the native, who is ‘naked’ and ‘alone’ and the numerous sailors disembarking ‘Columbus’ doom-burdened caravels’. The Indian’s nakedness suggests his primitive lifestyle and his defencelessness. The Indian reacts ‘in fear’ and drops his shells. This symbolises the fall of the native civilisation; his face turns white and he also kneels behind a stone. He stares at this monstrous sight and ‘did not understand’ the full impact of what was unfolding before his eyes. The poet’s intention is to make the contrast between the Spanish and the Indian evidently clear and simple to the reader, in order to draw our attention to the other side of the story which is rarely told in history books. This is emphasised by the choice of perspective for the poem. The image of ‘Columbus’ doom-burdened caravels’ is a powerful one, suggesting a grimly mocking or cynical tone because these caravels symbolise the beginning of the corruption of old civilisations. The final image of the sailors landing on shore is ominous, adding to the heaviness that weighs upon the reader’s knowledge of what will inevitably follow. The poem ends abruptly as the poet does not need to tell us anything else due to the readers’ knowledge of what happens next which has been documented in the history books.

Los Vendidos Play Analysis

Los Vendidos Play Analysis Beyond an energetic and comical playwright, Luis Valdez Los Vendidos is an accurate reflection of the contemporary American society, focusing on how Mexicans are perceived in this society. The play abounds in stereotypes about Mexicans, which is why the main theme of Los Vendidos is stereotyping. Stereotypes appear in societies because the dominant majority has difficulties in understanding the specificities of particular minorities, as it is the case of the Mexicans, portrayed in Los Vendidos. Nevertheless, stereotypes are nurtured as a modality of keeping minorities socio economically repressed and inferior to the dominant race in the society (Escobar p. 562). By portraying the main stereotypes that are used to refer to Mexicans in United States, such as farm workers, gang members or revolucionarios, Valdez describes the identity crisis experienced by Mexicans, who are trying to resist to the cultural assimilation of becoming Americans. The plot of this play revolves around an intended sale, wherein Miss Jimenez, a secretary of the Presidential administration is on a mission to purchase a Mexican model, in order to appeal to the Mexican electorate. Honest Sancho, the owner of the store that sells Mexican models, introduces to Miss Jimenez three types of Mexicans that she can purchase: the farm worker, the gang member and the revolutionary, exemplifying like this the main stereotypes with which Mexicans are associated in United States. The sole idea that the members of a race can relate with a single model, a robot that is believed to encompass the distinctiveness of an entire race is based on a prejudice (Kassin, Fein Markus p. 155). Another problem that the play raises in relation with the stereotypes created for Mexicans in United States, is that Mexicans themselves came to identify with the stereotypes that the American society created to define them. As such, Honest Sancho admits the main models of stereotyping existent in the American society and promotes them for sale. Although Honest Sancho seems to be interested in his business, exploiting the American culture of stereotyping in order to be profitable, there is, nevertheless, a truth in the fact that Mexicans adhere to the stereotypes created for them and transmit them from a generation to another. The fact that the typical Mexican people living in United States are represented through robots suggests the idea that Mexicans are not seen as humans, but as machines, hence the objectification of this people (Belkin p. 17). Honest Sanchos robots are seemingly created to serve the American society through their hard work, as exemplified by the farm worker, who is built close to the ground, durable, friendly and loves his patroness (Valdez pp. 41-42). On the other hand, the other machines that describe the stereotypical roles of Chicanos in U.S., respectively the gang member and the revolutionary. Yet, the roles of these Mexican models are also well justified, because they serve as criminals that get arrested (Valdez 44). In this sense, they are fulfilling the social role of criminality, serving as the scape goats for the malfunctions of the American society. Through the Mexican robots kept in store to be sold, Valdez demonstrates that the stereotypes have a functional role in soci ety, serving as the servers or the people to be blamed by the dominant race. This reinforces the idea that stereotyping is a form of racism that generates feelings of superiority from the dominant race towards minorities (Escobar 562). Although she is also a representative of the Mexican people in United States, Miss Jimenez identifies more with the dominant Americans than with Chicanos. Just as the white Americans, Miss Jimenez fails to admit the individuality of Mexicans, although she too, is a Mexican American, or una chicana (Valdez 41). On the other hand, she seems to be ignorant of the stereotypes and prejudices that Mexicans experience in United States. As such, when Honest Sancho describes to her that the farm worker is cutting grapes, she responds Oh, I wouldnt know (Valdez 42). This scene raises the question of whether one needs to dissociate of his national identity in order to escape the stereotypes associated with ones race. As such, Miss Jimenez insists that her name should be pronounced using English and not Spanish pronunciation, correcting Honest Sancho and admonishing him for his lack of good English skills, when he addresses her in a Mexican style: My name is Miss JIM-enez. Dont you speak English? Whats wrong with you? (Valdez p. 41). Although the play critiques the American society for its lack of cultural sensitivity to Mexican people, arguing that Americans consider all Mexicans as either farm workers, gang members or revolutionary, Miss Jimenez is the exception that deconstructs this myth. She is a Secretary in the U.S. government, therefore, she is educated, urban, modern, possessing all the features of the casual American. As Belkin (p. 18) observes, she is assimilated. In contrast with her, all the other Mexicans, who fail to become Americans and stick to their Mexican identities are considered stupid, uneducated or violent (Valdez p. 48; Belkin p. 18). Nevertheless, the play transmits mixed impressions about what the American society expects from the Mexicans, which further perpetuates the racial stereotypes directed at this nationality. As such, Miss Jimenez, as the representative of the American government, seeks a Mexican model that is educated, knows good English and a romantic figure to attract the women electorate. These values do not describe Mexican stereotypes, but the product of cultural assimilation (Belkin 18). On the other hand, through the character of Miss Jimenez, the play writer transmits the idea that the American society expects the Mexicans to be cheap. The constant question of Miss Jimenez is he economical (Valdez pp. 42 49) acts like a leitmotif in the play, putting an equal sign between Mexicans and cheap labor force. Cheap labor force is a stereotypical representation of Mexicans, one which is desired and expected by the white Americans, even from the educated and acculturated Mexicans. As such, speaking for the U.S. government, Miss Jimenez seems shocked to hear that the price for the educated Mexican is $ 15,000, asking Fifteen thousand dollars? For a Mexican!!! (Valdez 50). In other words, while the American society expects the Mexicans to become acculturated and integrated, acting and behaving like normal Americans, they still expect them to be cheaper, hence perpetuating the socio economical oppression of this people through prescriptive stereotypes (features widely accepted as defining roles or behaviors) (Corell and Benard 5). What started as a comical play developed complex sociological concepts of assimilation, acculturation or stereotyping. Stereotyping is the central theme of the play and it is vividly represented through all the characters presented in the play (Honest Sancho, Miss Jimenez and the robots). In addition, the social expectations from the Mexicans also perpetuate the stereotypes that keep this people in socio economical oppression to the dominant race in U.S. Las Vendidos teaches audiences about the danger that lies in stereotyping, which can take the form of economic oppression or riots. Stereotyping is more than a form of social discrimination; it is a lifestyle by which the dominant majority and the vulnerable minority live, abiding to the socially shaped misconceptions about how minorities should be or how they should act. Works Cited Belkin, Elena. Changing Fronts in La Lucha Chicana: Cultural Construction of Class, Race, and Gender in Chicano/a Literature. Ohio: Ohio State University. 2008. Print. https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/32190/Changing_Fronts_in_La_Lucha_Chicana-1.pdf?s Correll, Shelley, J. and Benard, Stephen. Gender and Racial Bias in Hiring. [Online] 21 March, 2006. Available at http://provost.upenn.edu/uploads/media_items/gender-racial-bias.original.pdf. 7 March, 2017. Escobar, Angela Sanchez. Chicanos: Stereotypes and Search for Self Identity as Seen through Literature. CUACE 14-15: 561-571. 1992. Print. http://cvc.cervantes.es/literatura/cauce/pdf/cauce14-15/cauce14-15_30.pdf Kassin, Saul, Fein, Steven Markus, Hazel Rose. Social Psychology. Belmont: Wadsworth. 2014. Print. https://books.google.ro/books?id=jtdnyrG9xboCprintsec=frontcoverdq=social+psychology+kassinhl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=social%20psychology%20kassinf=false Valdez, Luis. Luis Valdez Early Works: Across, Bernabe and Pensamiento Serpentino. Texas: Arte Publico Press. 1994. Print. https://books.google.ro/books?id=t62V4sknDw8Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=Luis+Valdez+%E2%80%93+Early+Works:+Across,+Bernabe+and+Pensamiento+Serpentinohl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwjV0KKH18XSAhWHzxQKHc0kCr4Q6AEIGjAA#v=onepageq=Luis%20Valdez%20%E2%80%93%20Early%20Works%3A%20Across%2C%20Bernabe%20and%20Pensamiento%20Serpentinof=false

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ethics

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ethics Abstract The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was a forty year-long study in which researchers observed the natural progression of syphilis in 399 African-American men. Despite medical advancements and the discovery of successful penicillin treatments for syphilis, researchers involved in the Tukegee Syphilis Study took extreme measures to ensure participants remained unaware of life-saving intervention (Jones, 1993). The deceptive and manipulative nature of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study resulted in public uproar and legislative action to ensure the protection of human rights and prevented future unethical practices in research involving human subjects. Although there are strict federal regulations for research ethics, underrepresentation of minority groups in clinical research continues to exist even forty years after the cessation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Research suggests that the maltreatment and unethical practices of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study may have fostered distrust in health care prov iders resulting in unwillingness to participant in clinical research (Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister 2000). The implications of the Tuskegee Syphilis have helped shape the American Psychological Associations Ethical Code of Conduct (2002) and influenced the current standard of care expected of health care providers involved in research. Keywords: Tuskegee Syphilis Study, research ethics Research Ethics: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is one of the most infamous and controversial studies executed in the last century. In 1932, the United States Public Health Service in conjunction with the Tuskegee Institute initiated a 40 year-long study to observe racial differences in the development of syphilis. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease that gradual spreads throughout the body and may cause physical deformities, dementia, paralysis, and even death (Center for Disease Control [CDC], 2012). Researchers from the Tuskegee Institute recruited 600 African-American men from Macon County, Alabama, 399 of who had untreated syphilis in the latency stage (Reverby, 2001). The researchers coerced participants into the study by telling them they had â€Å"bad blood†, a term used to describe multiple illnesses within the black community at that time. To persuade participants even further, researchers provided them with regular meals, free transportation to and from the clinic, and funeral s tipends for their families (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008). Furthermore, research directors hired African-American doctors and nurses in order to acquire and maintain the participants trust throughout the study (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Despite medical advancements and the 1943 discovery of penicillin as a successful treatment for syphilis, participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study were not privy to life-saving interventions. Furthermore, researchers prevented participants from knowing about viable treatment options by prohibiting medical screenings during the World War II draft, monitoring participants who went to other medical facilities, and intervening with other health care providers who tried to treat participants (Reverby, 2001; Rothman, 1982). By taking such extreme measures throughout the study, more than 100 men who suffered from syphilis succumbed to the curable disease (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Although several government agencies and healthcare providers knew of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, in 1972, the New York Times released an extensive article detailing the unethical treatment of African American men with untreated syphilis. The article generated public disgust and caused nationwide uproar, inevitably resulting in the 1973 termination of the Tuskegee Institute’s syphilis research by the Health and Scientific Affairs Review Board (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008). The unethical practices committed by researchers at the Tuskegee Institute led to the 1974 National Research Act, which mandated the use of Institutional Review Boards for research that receives federal grants (Rencher Wolf, 2013). Despite the cessation of the study in 1973, it was not until May 16, 1997 that President Clinton issued an apology on behalf of the United States Government to the victims of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. At this time, the United States Government recognized their role in the c ontinuation of the study and the ethical negligence that took place (Fairchild Bayer, 1999). Throughout the duration of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, generations of researchers who undertook the study continued to rationalize their work based on scientific grounds and the importance of understanding the biological progression of the disease. They justified any ethical concerns by suggesting that researchers could never replicate the magnitude of such data or have the ability to acquire such a large group of untreated individuals (Rothman, 1982). The validations given by researchers to continue mistreating patients stress the importance of creating ethical boundaries when conducting research. Acknowledging the deficient treatment and research decisions made by health care providers in the past helps influence the direction of patient care for the future. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, along with many other unethical research practices in our country’s medical and psychological history, including eugenics and maltreatment of the mentally ill in asylums, have helped shape the ethical requirements that are now expected from all health care providers. The ethical violations committed throughout the course of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study have influenced the inclusion of many standards outlined in the APA Code of Ethics involving patient care, therapeutic practice, and research protocols. Ethical Concerns General Principles The unethical foundation and practices carried out throughout the duration of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study violated the General Principles outlined in the 2002 American Psychological Association Ethical Code of Conduct including: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for Human Rights and Dignity. In terms of Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, which describes the importance of avoiding and minimizing patient harm (APA, 2002), the researchers involved with the continuation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study harmed their participants as well as the participants’ families who had to care for them as their health deteriorated due to the progression of the disease. Furthermore, researchers neglected to discuss the transmission of syphilis and preemptive measures that would prevent others from contracting the disease, which caused harm to those who had sexual relationships and children with untreated participants (Corbie-Smith, 1999; Jon es, 1993). The principle of Fidelity and Responsibility focuses on building and maintaining a trusting relationship between the patient and health care provider as well as the obligation to serve in accordance to the patient’s best interest (APA, 2002). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study violated this principle and in many ways relied on deception to give the impression of trusting relationships between researchers and participants. For instance, in order to gain the trust of the participants, researchers hired an African-American nurse named Eunice Rivers for the duration of the forty year-long study. She would often transport them to and from the clinic, act as a cultural liaison, and provide devoted support to the participants (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Although this encouragement and assistance was important for the participants throughout the study, the formation and maintenance of such a trusting relationship may have inhibited the participants from making well-informed decisions about their c ontinued involvement in the study. In this regard, Eunice Rivers may have unintentionally acted as a mode of deception rather than of trust by not upholding the participants’ best interest and inadvertently obstructing informed consent. The Integrity and Justice Principles involve the importance of upholding honesty, avoiding misrepresentation, and ensuring access and benefit from services (APA, 2002). In regards to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, the violations of these values are apparent due to the dishonest, manipulative, and immoral nature of the study. Researchers went to great lengths in order to prevent participants from learning about life-saving treatments for syphilis including informing the Alabama Health Department not to treat participants, interceding with other health care providers, and prohibiting medical screenings for participants drafted to fight in World War II (Reverby, 2001). The resources that researchers used to maintain the study’s objective indicates the unethical practices that occurred throughout the duration of the study in the name of science. Lastly, the principle of Respect for Human Rights and Dignity concerns the protection of human rights and overall welfare of a patient’s well-being (APA, 2002). Throughout the course of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, researchers violated several human rights and exploited the vulnerability of a community affected by a potentially fatal disease. Researchers took advantage of a population that lacked affluence and quality education for American-Americans by giving participants incentives such as funeral stipends and hot meals, which inevitably impeded their ability to make informed decisions about participating in the study (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008; Corbie-Smith, 1999). Furthermore, during the period in which the Tuskegee Syphilis Study took place, social prejudices against African-Americans may have influenced the basis and continued justification of the study (Bhopal, 1997). Informed Consent The standards outlined in the American Psychological Association are expectations pertinent to all health care providers who are assessing, treating, or researching patients. The standard related to informed consent regarding research discusses the importance of disclosing the purpose, potential risks, and expected duration of the study in order for participants to make educated decisions about their participation in research (APA, 2002). From a historical perspective, at the time of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study the APA Code of Conduct was not a comprehensive list of standards, research guidelines, and protocols. However, the importance of informed consent is paramount in Tuskegee Syphilis Study and influences the expectations for patient care that are applicable today. The African-American subjects involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study were primarily impoverished and uneducated sharecroppers, which presents ethical concerns regarding the ability for participants to make informed decisions due to desirable research incentives or an inability to comprehend the extent of their involvement in the study. Researchers also used the term â€Å"bad blood† to recruit participants rather than informing them of their actual medical condition. The lack of information provided to the participants regarding the nature of the study and treatment options indicates the inadequacy of informed consent that caused harm to many individuals involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. In addition, there remains to be controversy regarding how informed the participants were throughout the study. In 1972, a Center of Disease Control officer reported that participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study had knowledge of the study’s nature and knew they could withdraw at any time. Conversely, Dr. Williams, an intern who worked at the Tuskegee Institute during the study, stated neither interns nor participants knew of the study’s objectives (Jones, 1993). The conflicting accounts indicate the deceptive characteristics of the study, which may have caused confusion to the participants and subsequent mistrust of health care providers that is still prevalent today. Deception in Research The APA Ethical Code of Conduct prohibits researchers from deceiving participants in research that may potentially â€Å"cause physical harm or severe emotional distress† (p. 11). The detrimental effects caused by the Tuskegee Institute violated this standard in several ways. For instance, researchers told participants they had â€Å"bad blood† and offered treatment and incentives for ongoing participation. Medical staff involved in the study never told participants their true medical diagnosis. Charles Pollard, a Tuskegee subject stated, â€Å"All I knew was that they just kept saying I had bad blood- they never mentioned syphilis to me, not even once† (Jones, 1993, p. 278). The participants used in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study all had syphilis in the latency stage, which can be very dangerous if left untreated. Many with latent stage syphilis may not experience the external symptoms of syphilis including sores and rashes; however, they may be susceptible to develop paralysis, blindness, dementia, or fatal damage to internal organs (CDC, 2012). Despite the debilitating and life-threatening effects of syphilis, participants never received counseling on how to prevent the transmission of disease or that their disease was contagious at all. Consequently, this exacerbated the spread syphilis and contributed to 40 wives contracting syphilis from sexual interactions and 19 children born with congenital syphilis (Jones, 1993; Perkiss, 2013). Although the Tuskegee participants believed they were receiving treatment for â€Å"bad blood†, researchers actually prevented participants from gaining access to life-saving treatment and watched as participants health slowly deteriorated. Researchers continued to justify this active neglect in fear of losing â€Å"valuable† research data due to the longevity of the study. The harm caused by the omission of information in the Tuskegee Study, especially the severity and cause of syphilis is irrevocable and continues to have ethical implications in research studies. Research Implications The unethical practices of researchers and health care providers throughout the Tuskegee Syphilis Study have led to legislative, political, and social implications that continue to affect research protocols. Due to the public upset caused by the revelation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, legislators passed the National Research Act in 1974 in hopes of avoiding unethical practices in future research endeavors (Rencher Wolf, 2013). The National Research Act led to the formation of theNational Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research who were responsible for recognizing and enforcing the ethical standards regarding professional conduct when using human subjects in research. By doing so, the Commission also established guidelines for researchers to abide by in order to protect human rights and preserve human dignity (The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). The National Research Act also mandated institutions who receive government grants to establish and submit research proposals to local Institutional Review Boards. The Institutional Review Boards are required to evaluate research studies and ensure that informed consent, research methods, and objectives adhere to the ethical guidelines and uphold human rights. Moreover, the Institutional Review Boards are responsible for yearly evaluations to ensure r esearchers remain in accordance to all ethical guidelines. (Rencher Wolf, 2013; Corbie-Smith, 1999). Due to the legal and ethical implications of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, many research institutions became overly cautious about including certain groups in their research in fear of causing another public protest. Excluding particular groups from research limited generalizability and the application of research findings to a diverse population, which consequently hindered scientific progression. This concern led to the 1993 National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act, which required researchers to include minorities and women as research subjects. However, the ability to acquire these populations for clinical research, especially ethnic minorities, continues to be troublesome (Corbie-Smith, Thomas, Williams, Moody-Ayers, 1999). Although federal regulations have mandated ethical guidelines for research, the effects of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and other unprincipled practices throughout history may be a factor in the underrepresentation of minorities participating in research and the perpetual mistrust in health care providers (Freimuth et al., 2001). Based on a report from the Center of Disease Control, African-Americans have higher rates of medical conditions including heart disease, stroke, HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and hypertension (CDC, 2011). However, due to the low census of participants in medical research, health care providers face challenges when trying to identify the physiological, cultural, and sociological reasons contributing to the high prevalence of African-Americans suffering from medical conditions. Researchers suggest that the extensive history of unethical treatment by health care professionals, including that of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study may affect the low frequency of minorities willing to participate in research (Freimuth et al., 2001). For instance, a study conducted by Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister (2000) indicates that knowledge of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study would negatively affect African-American participation in biomedical research based on distrust of researchers. Although awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was not the only factor influencing minority participation, 51% of African-Americans were less trusting of medical research because of their knowledge of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Furthermore, of the 51% who distrusted researchers, 46% reported that knowledge of the Tuskegee Study would affect their participation in medical research and 49% reported being unwilling to participant in research studies. Misconceptions regarding the nature of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study which suggests that researchers intentionally injected participants with syphilis in order to observe the natural progression of the disease may also be a contributing factor as to why minorities are hesitant to trust researchers or health care providers (Freimuth et al., 2001; Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister 2000). Furthermore, parental influence and socialization may have also had an indirect influence on more recent generations who were unaware of the discreditable history of research methods for scientific advancement (Poythress, Epstein, Stiles, Edens, 2011). The influence of cultural perspectives regarding research may reinforce reluctance to participate in research and perpetuate mistrust in health care providers. Conclusion The ethical research concerns surrounding the Tuskegee Syphilis Study continues to influence the revisions of the APA code of conduct, the standard of care expected for all patients, legislative orders to protect human rights, and social perspectives of health care providers. Despite the cessation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study in 1973 and the enforcement of strict federal regulations, the underrepresentation of minorities in research continues to be a concern. The lack of participation limits generalizability and impedes the validity and application of research findings. In order to facilitate change, it is important for researchers and health care providers to address the misconceptions of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, recognize the development of ethical standards throughout recent decades, and emphasize the value of accurate representation of minorities in research.

Urethral Catheters Essay -- Health, Diseases, Urinary Tract Infection

Urethral catheters are small tubes inserted through the urethra to drain urine. These devices are often linked with high rates of urinary tract infections (UTI) and are frequently used in the older population. This contributes to lengthier hospital stays leading to increased medical costs. In 2008, the Centers of Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) included catheterassociated bacteriuria (CAB) as one of the preventable hospital-acquired conditions (HAC) that will affect reimbursement if contracted by a patient in the acute and long-term setting. This paper focuses on three best evidence-based practices and nursing strategies to prevent CABs. Background Van Buren is the second largest city in the Fort Smith, Arkansas (AR)-Oklahoma (OK) metropolitan statistical area and is the county seat of Crawford County, AR. The city of Van Buren has numerous subsystems dedicated to the well-being of the community, which includes one medical facility, five medical clinics, three nursing homes, three ambulance services, and the Crawford County Health Department (Yellow Pages, 2010). The medical facility, Summit Medical Center, provides full-service general acute care to approximately 160,000 residents annually in Crawford, Franklin, and Sebastian Counties in AR and Sequoyah County in OK. The facility has 103 beds, has more than 100 nurses on staff, and has over 140 physicians in the medical clinics (Summit Medical Center, 2011). In 2009, the medical facility emergency department (ED) treated 170 residents from nursing homes, 70 of which were hospitalized after examination and treatment in the ED, 58 were treated as â€Å"ED outpatient† visits, and 42 were direct hospitalization visits (Summit Medical Center, 2011). The majority of... ...See Figure I). The decision tree is used as a guide for clinicians in making clinical decisions to either continue or discontinue indwelling urethral catheters. Conclusion Urethral catheterization in the older population should be considered as a last option because it can lead to catheter-associated bacteriuria, bloodstream infection, sepsis and death. It should not be used for staff convenience, or to manage urinary incontinence manageable by other means. CAB is a condition that can be prevented with the application of evidence-based best practice strategies. These include criteria for catheter placement and discontinuation, use of silver-alloy catheters for short-term catheterization, and limiting bladder irrigation. An algorithm for urethral catheter insertion, care and removal is used as a tool to help prevent CABs and achieve better patient outcomes.

tellectual Life of the Painters of the Early Renaissance :: History

Intellectual Life of the Painters of the Early Renaissance Before attempting to answer the question it is important to consider what we mean by ‘early Italian Renaissance. Unlike many periods in history the Renaissance has no obvious start and end dates, for the purposes of this assignment I will define the approximate period within which to look as about 1390 to about 1520. 1390 represents the time when the Carrara court in Padua was gaining an intellectual reputation of excellence, as well as this being about the time that two Roman coin like medals were cast of Francesco II and his father. This represents a typically renaissance trait of looking to antiquities for inspiration, as will be discussed later. The time around 1520 represents when Raphael died this was followed closely by the death of Pope Leo X, the second High Renaissance pope. It is after their deaths that the creative and optimistic mood in Italy began to fade. The decade ending 1520 saw Leonardo da Vinci leaving for France and then dieing there in 1519. There are many other examples that could confirm these dates as significant, and also many more that would dispute them, but for the purposes of simplicity we will take these as a guide. In the beginnings of the Renaissance painting was seen very much as a craft performed by members of the artisan class and not a ‘liberal art’. In fact the term artist was not used, as it is today, as a general term meaning painter and sculptor. ‘Artista’ was a term already in use by Dante, but it was used in reference to a University level graduate of the ‘liberal arts’, it is not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that it is used in a context resembling today's usage. The lower status of painting at the beginning of the Renaissance is reflected in the fact that members of the aristocracy or learned class did not generally practice it. A member of the Milanese aristocracy, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio’s epitaph stressed that although he was a painter, he was an amateur, because if it were thought that he made his living from painting it would significantly lower his social status. It is for this reason that few people in the early Renaissance would see painting as a method of social advancement or to demonstrate intellectual ability. This did not however stop many

How are The Characters Presented at the start of A View From The Bridge Essay

The play opens with the introduction of Alfieri. He is shown to have the role of a chorus: a bridging character between the audience and the characters. The chorus tends to exist almost outside the play, as they know the outcome of the play, and is rarely part of the main action; their purpose in a play is to address the audience and help them to interpret action and they are a common feature in tragedy. The significance of Alfieri is that he alludes to the title and is the one giving us the â€Å"View From the Bridge†. Alfieri is described as being a â€Å"portly lawyer in his fifties†. Since he is a lawyer it is safe to assume that he is somewhat wealthy, as shown by the fact that he is portly, however it also hints towards the outcome of the play. As stated by Alfieri â€Å"to see a lawyer †¦ is unlucky. We’re only thought of in connection with disasters† foreshadowing the future events of the play. This idea is furthered when Alfieri says that he was â€Å"powerless to stop it (Eddie’s tale)†. The word powerless implies that the events Alfieri is describing are fated to happen and are inevitable, another trope of tragedy. Additionally Alfieri states that many people were â€Å"justly shot by unjust men† referring to the traditional Italian justice system which focussed heavily on honour and revenge. Unlike a conventional justice system this was ‘enforced’ by the community and the phrase Alfieri says is a comment on how people were being rightfully punished by others just as bad as them. As Eddie enters the house he is greeted by Catherine and they begin to start a conversation about her new clothes. As the conversation progresses Eddie begins to show his dislike for Catherine’s new appearance by telling her she’s â€Å"walking wavy† and mentioning her high heels. The fact that Catherine is described as â€Å"walking wavy† shows that she is maturing as a woman, also shown by her possession of high heels, and Eddies discomfort at this can be chalked up to parental concern. However it could also be said that Eddie is uncomfortable with the idea of Catherine growing up, as shown by the fact that he makes her gradually younger in his head starting at â€Å"Catherine† and ending at â€Å"baby†, and that he is jealous towards the other men and that he is unsure how he feels about her. The parental concern idea is added onto later on when Eddie says that he is â€Å"responsible for you (Catherine)† showing that he feels as though he is obligated to protect her and keep her from harm. Additionally when Catherine tells Eddie of her new job he tells her that it â€Å"ain’t what I wanted†. While this can once again be chalked up to Eddie’s parental concern for Catherine and his desire for her to finish school it seems as if the underlying message is that Eddie wants to control Catherine into doing things that he deems as acceptable rather than giving her the freedom to choose her own life. Eddie’s wish for Catherine to not pursue the job offer she had been given might be explained by the fact that he sees her as the â€Å"Madonna type†. At the time the play was set to be the Madonna type was to be morally and sexually pure, in reference to the Virgin Mary. The fact that Eddie says that she is â€Å"the Madonna type† shows that he is idealising her to an extreme and is also idolising her; he sees her at an impossibly high standard which she has no hope of actually being. Now it could be seen once again as a sort of parental pride for their child to be the Madonna type or it could be interpreted at Eddie seeing her as pure for him, further hinting to the romantic undertones in their relationship. From the moment Beatrice enters the stage it is clear what her role is and where her importance lies. She is seen entering â€Å"wiping her hands with a towel†, it is clear from this point on that Beatrice will have a very domestic role and that within the story she plays the part of a housewife. Additionally what is also made clear is that the relationship between Beatrice and Eddie is not quite perfect. When the news is broken to her that her cousins have arrived in the country Beatrice, quite understandable, is moved to tears. Eddie responds to this by asking her â€Å"what you cryin’ about?† a very unsympathetic response. The question that Eddie poses might imply that on some level he is unable to understand Beatrice’s feelings and that there might be some dysfunction in their relationship. This is demonstrated when she asks Eddie if he’s â€Å"gonna keep her (Catherine) in the house all her life†. This remark from Beatrice shows that she sees the unfair way that Eddie is keeping Catherine in the house and brings to light Eddie’s controlling manner but it could also imply that Beatrice is feeling jealousy towards Catherine, as she is getting all the attention from Eddie, and wants her out of the house. When Catherine returns later on she brings Eddie his cigar and proceeds to light it for him. In the period this play was set, to lighting a man’s cigar was seen as a romantic gesture done between two lovers. This gesture could be interpreted in a sexual manner is the cigar is seen as representing a phallic object. This whole scene serves to hammer in the fact that there is more to Eddie and Catherine’s relationship than there appears to be on the surface. Just after Catherine leaves Eddie asks Beatrice why she’s mad at him, she proceeds to say, â€Å"who’s mad? †¦ I’m not mad †¦ you’re the one is mad.† clearly implying that she is in fact mad. This shows the dysfunction in their relationship caused by Catherine, who is oblivious to the whole thing. The fight was caused by the fact that Catherine went to retrieve Eddie’s cigars which is traditionally a wife’s role. Beatrice’s anger to this shows the jealousy she feels and her frustration due to the fact that Eddie and Catherine do not even realise what is going on. However Catherine might have some clue as to how she’s making Beatrice feel when she is described as speaking â€Å"almost guiltily† after light the cigar. While her guilt might be due to the fact that she hadn’t helped Beatrice clean up the dishes, guilt would be a rather strong emotion to feel for such a small act. What is more likely is that Catherine has realised that she had come in the way of an act that Beatrice should’ve done and is trying to atone for that by helping to clean the dishes.

Marco Polo’s Influence on Christopher Columbus Essay

Marco Polo’s Travels formulated in Europe of the fourteenth and fifteenth century a new perception of the Eastern world, a world just as advanced and sophisticated as that of the West. Yet, another two centuries were needed for a significant change to take place; this was Christopher Columbus’ voyage. For Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo’s travelogue was a valuable and solid resource that contained the necessary details of the East. The geographical descriptions in his writing generated a basis for Columbus’ scientific calculations for his expedition and the explicit depictions of the luxury of Cipangu and Cathay, flawed though they were, created a strong motivation for Columbus. In the 12th of May 1492, Christopher Columbus, accompanied by the writings of Marco Polo, sets sail to change history forever. Marco Polo’s travelogue was the only written account to have enlightened the European world with details of the Eastern world. In the year 1254, when Marco Polo was born in a noble family of Venice, the public knowledge of the East was close to nothing. Ever since the years of Alexander the Great, Europe had scarce information about its neighboring civilization. Although basic trade routes were present along the Silk Road, â€Å"no one in the West seems to have had any notion of the country from which it had come or those through which it had passed.† Islamic countries that surrounded Europe, along with the Atlantic Ocean created a natural barrier, isolating the Europeans from the rest of the world. Even the vigorous merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Constantinople could not penetrate beyond the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. â€Å"The religion and commerce of Islam were flourishing throughout that continent† after the first Crusades. Due to this strong â€Å"Islamic curtain†, the Europeans were unaware of the existence of the Mongol empire gradually rising as one of the world superpowers until Marco Polo came back with fascinating stories after his service under the Great Khan. The seventeen years of service under Kublai Khan safely and conveniently provided Marco with a wide range of experiences in the Asian continent. The Polo brothers, Maffeo and Nicolo Polo (father and uncle of Marco Polo) had initially met with the Khan some years before they took Marco on their second journey to China. Let me tell you next of the personal appearance of the Great Lord of Lords whose name is Kubilai Khan. He is a man of good stature, neither short nor tall but of moderate height. His limbs are well fleshed out and modeled in due proportion. His complexion is fair and ruddy like a rose, the eyes black and handsome, the nose shapely and set squarely in place. The Khan was a wise and brave man, and Marco being a master four languages and young and healthy as he was, the Khan appointed him to a high post in the administration. Marco was given a golden tablet in the shape of a tiger’s head, â€Å"which grated Ch’ang Ch’un a free pass and the right of assistance everywhere in the Mongol Realm.† With sufficient access, Marco was able to visit various places in Asia and gained an abundant amount of experience with its culture. He illustrates the geography, climate, people, and religions of the East in depth, even mentioning the recipe of Mongolian dried milk. Marco Polo’s achievements were only completed after his return home, when encounters Rustichello of Pisa, a romance writer who became his collaborator in putting his stories into a book. Two years before the death of Kublai Khan, the Polos were assigned their last mission to escort the Mongol princess Kokachin to marry the Persian prince, and then to return home. Painstakingly, they accomplished their mission and arrived home in the winter of 1295. Marco begins a new life with the jewels and gold acquired in his journey. When a war between Venice and Genoa starts off, Marco is captured and imprisoned for a year in the Genoese prison. Here he meets Rustichello, to whom Marco tells the stories of his great journey. After his return home, Marco, although Rustichello did most of the work, publishes his travelogue: Marco Polo Travels. Marco’s book remained more for entertainment purposes until the 1450s and 60s when Johann Gutenberg invents the letterpress and catalyzes its spread. At first, many people were skeptical about his book. His writing contained many mentions of legends and myths that seemed to be quite exaggerated. Neither did Marco include any descriptions about the Great Wall. Regardless of these  controversies, his book became one of the first books to be massively published through the Gutenberg’s letterpress. Travels spreads out through Europe in no time. By the time all of Europe is shocked by his book, Marco approaches his death, leaving the last words: â€Å"I have only told the half of what I saw!† Whether or not Marco’s words were reliable was not an issue at this point. In the years following Marco’s death, immense changes occurred in the minds of Europeans including the perception of world geography, directly affecting Columbus’ preparations. The TO map best represents the medieval understanding of the world. (Diagram attached to the back) The circle O, represents the world and the branches of the T, the Don and the Nile. Asia fills the upper semi circle and in the left and right of the upright section of the T, which represents the Mediterranean, lays Africa and Europe. In the center is Jerusalem and at the top is Earthly Paradise of Adam and Eve, believed at the time to be the source of great rivers such as the Tigris and the Euphrates. Images of Noah’s Ark, the Tower of Babel, and others of the bible can be found on the map. As presented, the TO map signifies the primitive form of the world map before the years of Marco Polo. The world map rapidly evolved starting from the publishing of Marco’s book to the time of Columbus. The impact of Marco Polo’s works is displayed in these maps. Among the numerous versions of different maps, â€Å"the first maps known to us†¦ strongly influenced by Marco’s Books and which still remain to †¦[is]†¦ the Catalan Atlas,† drawn up by the Majorcan Jew Abraham Cresques at around 1380. Here is introduced for the first time, India, in the form of a peninsula and images and lands of the Great Khan. The map also includes on it images of traditional legends of the area. Great resemblance can be found between them and those of Marco’s book. Representations of the world grew bigger and wider until finally, even the notion of a path westward to Asia is brought up. When the impact of Marco Polo started to take place, a physician of Florence by the name of Paolo Toscanelli, played the role of transforming the ideas of Marco Polo into the scientific inspirations for Christopher Columbus.  Toscanelli was one of Marco Polo’s believers, who supported Marco Polo’s estimate of the length of Asia to be correct. He argued that, according to his calculations, â€Å"a voyage of 3000miles from Lisbon to Cipangu and 500miles from Lisbon to Quinsay† was possible. With this calculation, he urged men that an expedition for the search of Japan, described as the â€Å"most fertile in gold,† should be organized. Among these men was the young and ambitious Christopher Columbus. The theories of Toscanelli stimulated the intellectual interest of Columbus and soon Columbus was determined to find out more. Columbus wrote Toscanelli questioning him for more comprehensive information. Toscanelli replied with an encouragement of Columbus’ aspirations and a chart of calculations, which he carried with him on his voyage. By this time, Columbus was determined to put his thoughts into action. Although Columbus’ calculations were carefully made, most of it was erroneous. One of his major calculations was his misconception of a degree. He thought the length of a degree was 562/3 Italian nautical miles. (â€Å"the Italian nautical mile used by Columbus contained 1480 meters† ) This was not his own idea, but of the general public of his time. According to Henry Vignaud, he obtained his results â€Å"because he knew in advance what he wanted to find.† Based on his degree and other elements including the calculations of Toscanelli, Columbus’ conclusion came out to be far from the truth. It came out that Tokyo would be on the meridian that runs through Western Cuba, Chattanooga, Grand Rapids, and Western Ontario. In other words, â€Å"he underestimated the size of the world by 25 percent.† Yet, until his actual departure, he had no clue whatsoever of his mistakes or of the American continent. Marco Polo had provided Columbus with crucial information of the East, but Columbus had not known that there were so many more things to consider, such as the existence of another world in the West. Fifteenth century Europe was an age of exploration and discovery; interest of the Eastern world was increasing rapidly everyday. Trade with the Indies, which referred to most of Eastern Asia, flourished during the time of Columbus, especially in Portugal and Spain where spent most of his life. â€Å"The account of Polo’s travels told how to buy spices from the East,† and  other goods such as silk, gold, silver, or perfumes were also taken by caravans across Asia to Constantinople and then redistributed through Europe. Although the price was costly due to long and burdensome process of shipping and handling, the demand for these merchandises continued to rise as the amount of luxury and wealth of Europe also increased. Thus, it was soon evident for a new and shorter route for the importing of these valuables. Repeated attempts were made to get around Africa to India. Columbus, however, â€Å"decided that the African route was the hard way to the Indies.† He was thinking of an easier and quicker way to reach the East; he proposed to travel west. His rather rash plot satisfied the desires for expansion of the people of his time. After Columbus made up his mind, his next task was to convince the wealthy Princes to provide the necessary equipment and money for his expedition. Unfortunately, Columbus was turned down in the Portuguese committee, where he had gained a certain level of respect as a merchant. He, then moved to Spain, and started his six years of persuasion. It was hard for Columbus to support with solid evidence his requests at first. He, thus, turned to Marco Polo. Columbus used the tempting descriptions of the Cipangu, or today’s Japan, for his first argument against the princes. By the time of Columbus, â€Å"The Travels of Marco Polo became one of the best-known tales in western Europe.† One of the biggest issues of Marco Polo’s book was whether or not its magnificent portrayal of Japan’s luxury was true. According to Marco Polo, wealth of no other civilization matched that of the Japanese. They have gold in great abundance, because it is found there in measureless quantities†¦so much indeed that I can report to you in sober truth a veritable marvel concerning a certain palace of the ruler of the island. You may take it for a fact that he has a very large palace entirely roofed with find gold. Just as we roof our houses or churches with lead, so this palace is roofed with fine gold. Even the most stubborn princes gazed open-mouthed at the imagination of such  luxury. Certainly, the search for Cipangu sounded much more convincing after such descriptions. Another part of Columbus’ argument was based on religious reasoning. The failure of the Crusades was a huge disgrace for the Christian ruling class of Europe and many attempts to regain control of the Holy Land, which was then occupied by the Turks, were made. The Mongol empire, which the Europeans still believed to exist way after its actual downfall, sounded like a strategically profitable deal. Horrific impressions faded away as benevolent descriptions of Kublai Khan and the rest of his subjects were made in Marco Polo’s book. Now let me tell you something of the bounties that the Great Khan confers upon his subjects. For all his thoughts are directed towards helping the people who are subject to him, so that they may live and labor and increase their wealth. Likewise, Europeans were shocked at the incredibly civilized qualities of the Mongols they previously considered barbaric. In 1492, after six years of tenacious persuasion, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain finally accept Columbus’ proposal. The end to Columbus’ persuasion of princes only brings forth about a new beginning of an arduous journey of exploration and a new world. Marco Polo’s Travels acted as a basis for Christopher Columbus’s achievement and the Age of Discovery. Columbus may have formulated a flawed theory of the world, but it was convincing enough for the princes who bought into it. This surely could not have been done without evidence found in Marco Polo’s book. Without Marco Polo, there would not have been Columbus, and furthermore, no America. Marco Polo’s possibly false information has made one of the biggest changes in history.